Romancing Ancient Dinosaur Bones – San Rafael Swell

Maps encourage boldness.

They’re like cryptic love letters.

They make anything seem possible.

 Mark Jenkins

Rare Fremont goggles, circa 200-1300 CE

Woven reed and grass with leather strip

I did not explore nor research much about The San Rafael Swell before visiting.  I merely stared at a few squiggly lines on a basic road map.  No topography, no points of interest, only a name or two.  It will never, however hard I try, lead me to the point, where, like the Ancestral People, I come to a part of the world not knowing at all what I will see, find, or experience. For one, I am fully aware the world isn’t flat, I won’t suddenly fall off its abrupt edge!  Still, I was trying to know as little as possible so each new curve or top of hill would bring a surprise to behold.  And so it was.

Traveling in this manner can be a bit more stressful but, aware it hadn’t rained in a while and that the weather was cooling off, I didn’t have to worry about being stranded in the mud or being too hot.  There are no amenities nor cellphone reception in this area so, in a way, I was on my own.  If no one else came by, I could be stuck for a while.  Thankfully, I carried my mountain bike and the nearest town was about twenty miles away on a rough windy dirt road.  Not necessarily fun, but certainly feasible. 

So, judiciously, I move on to taste the unknown and celebrate the mysteries of a nature which, at times, likes to keep her secrets well concealed; only to be discovered by those who take the time. 

Early in the day, the canyon walls on either sides of me alternate between radiating solar warmth or bitter cold according to sun or shade. A discernibly chilly breeze and half a dozen pronghorn antelopes show signs of life.  Everything else, on the cusp of a quickly approaching winter, seemed dormant, as if waiting, for me, to quickly pass by, before resuming their stealthy active lives.  

In summer of 2019, I traveled to Capitol Reef, which is on the west side of The San Rafael Swell.  The word reef was used to emphasize how dangerous it was for early settlers to pass.  As a reminder, this was ‘the last territory to be charted in the contiguous 48 states, because it seemed so impenetrable.’ I am now on the little more accessible east side.  

Romancing Ancient Dinosaur Bones 

I am definitely no expert in dinosaurs but the remains of more than a couple dozen kinds have been discovered in the vicinity.  Several lists exist on the internet but there are so many variances between them that I won’t go itemizing the dinosaur findings, except for two that were named after a husband/wife team from Utah, who discovered them.  

Animantarx Ramaljonesi, was a small, armored nodosaur dinosaur discovered by Ramal (Ray) Jones while conducting a radiological survey in 1994.  This was the first dinosaur found using a remote sensing instrument.  Ramal was operating a device that he designed and built to locate buried fossilized bone for which he later received a US patent.  Ramal and his wife Carol also discovered the Eolambia-caroljonesi, a duckbill dinosaur.    

Romancing the Stone is, among other things, jeweler’s jargon referring to the preparation (faceting, polishing) of a gem for use in jewelry (I won’t, in this post, get into the X-rated connotations of this expression, especially since I am mentioning bones). Dinosaur bones in altered states can become precious stones.  One hundred and fifty million years of rain, snow, sun, heat, pressure, and cold can replace the cell structure with colorful agate, calcite or quartz. This infinitely slow transfer from bone to agate is called ‘pseudomorphing’.  A process that takes place in nature’s time scale of eternity.  

Metastatic cancer in dinosaur bone.
White parts represent trabeculae disruptions indicative of cancer process.

Hemangioma – dinosaur tumor of blood vessels
First ever discovered by Virginia and Gene Talbot, 1961
Opening new doors to paleopathology study

Replacements are substances in which the original entity is slowly replaced molecule by molecule with a new substance while preserving the original form.  A common and well-known example of a replacement pseudomorph in fossils found all over the world is petrified wood.  

Some pseudomorphs are called Dinogem™ by gem dealers in Arizona, when it applies to the bones of the world’s most widely recognized dinosaur, the famous T-Rex.

Beautiful example of a Dinogem™
T-Rex bone mineralized with Chalcedony Quartz

Also known as Agatized Dinosaur Bone, Dino Bone, or Gembone, they trace back to dinosaurs that roamed the earth during the Late Jurassic, around 150 million years ago.  Like Amber, Ammolite, and Pearl, Dinogem™ is created from a living organism; mineralized dinosaur bone that has been fossilized with precious minerals, such as Chalcedony Quartz, Calcite, Opal, Pyrite or combinations thereof.  

The holes (cells) in the bones, which were pathways for blood vessels and bone marrow are individually fossilized preserving the actual cell structure of the once living dinosaur.  The most frequent and best Dinogem™ has been mineralized with Chalcedony Quartz, providing a durable glassy luster.  This fossilization is preferred over Calcite, which is consequently lower in durability and value.  As Chalcedony Quartz is the most common mineral in Dinogem™, it is still referred to as Agatized Dinosaur Bone even though other minerals are present.  

Gem-quality mineralized dinosaur bone is a true miracle of nature and remains among the rarest fossils (and gemstones) in the world.  While non-gem grade fossilized dinosaur bones are found in many countries, highly Agatized Dinogem™ is almost exclusively found in the four corners region of the Colorado Plateau, Southern Argentina, and Chile.  It is typically formed in ancient river beds and sedimentary deposits.  Source: Dinogem - Gem Adventurer™

Additional examples of pseudomorphs – other colors
Only pseudomorphs found on private land can be sold

The San Rafael Swell Museum was a small gem (pun intended).  Serving as visitor center for the tiny town of Castle Dale, Utah (population 1,630), as well, I didn’t expect to see much here but I was happily surprised.  In addition to showing numerous examples of pseudomorphs (which, except for the diseased ridden ones, I couldn’t photograph, because of the way they were showcased), it also displayed the Fremont goggles you see at the top of this post, and the yucca sandal below.  Both are amazingly well preserved plant-based items you don’t often see since they usually deteriorate so rapidly.

Ancestral – yucca fiber woven sandal. 
Unique pattern on both sides of sole (back seen in mirror)

Ancient calendaring in The San Rafael Swell 

Many Pre-Colombian groups had similar calendaring illustrations but they didn’t have identical or universal ways of representing it.  Over time and generations, the angle through which the sun moves between the solstice and equinox became a symbol of representation for the year, the season, and for time itself.  

The Rochester Panel – represented at The San Rafael Swell Museum
Specifically marked calendaring petroglyphs circled in red
The long vertical line is believed to be a path to heaven or afterlife

The Rochester Panel contains an interesting calendar observatory that was created by the Fremont People around 1300 CE.  Physicist Nal Morris and a group of fellow physicists researched this site in 1983.  Their conclusion was that this panel ‘is numbered among the most mindful and intentionally executed road art panels in the region’.  After much conjecture, computer analysis and testing, they discovered that a pole (gnomon) placed at a very specific spot in front of the panel would cast very clear shadows on specific petroglyphs on the panel marking the summer solstice, the equinox, the winter solstice, and the cross quarters (mid-points between solstice and equinox).

Utah Rock Art 2

The Rochester Panel feature several of the classic elements often portrayed in Fremont petroglyphs. While many rock art experts attribute this ancient petroglyph panel to the Fremont Culture, others believe it was created (or highly influenced) by the Barrier Canyon Culture, a hunter-gatherer society.  Although considerably studied over the years by anthropologists, the meaning of the art is not known. 

How do you ‘date’ primitive rock art?  Daring figures with ambiguous history. 

Dating rock art is notoriously difficult. Petroglyphs are created by chipping, scraping, or pecking rock, and a patina is formed when rock is chipped away. These rock art patinas are brown or black stains of hydrous iron and manganese oxides. The darker the patina, the older the petroglyph. This helps to determine which petroglyphs are older than others, but not to know the date of their creation. 

Even with pictographs, where some sort of substance was painted onto the rock, there is often not enough material to collect in order to perform radiocarbon dating (especially without harming the pictograph). What’s more, natural weathering and adhering to other material in the rock make getting a clean sample of paint material virtually impossible.

Given the challenges to radiocarbon dating the organic material in rock art, archaeologists and rock art specialists throughout the later 20^th century have estimated the age of The Swell’s rock art by indirect methods. 

By looking at the style of, or the figures themselves.  If, of a horse, for example, we can presume it was painted or etched after the horse-introducing Spaniards came to this side of the world in the 1500’s.  If, a painted character was also found represented in clay, and the clay figurine was discovered among datable organic material, we can assume they are from approximately the same period.  If the bow and arrow is present, then it must have come after the introduction of these weapons. 

 

By looking at the environment.  If, in a cave or a valley that can flood, filling with sediments, and a pictograph or petroglyph is partially eroded or covered by such event, we can deduct a date before/after that event. 

 

By looking at superimposition of paintings.  If one style, always seems be on top of another, we can assume that style is newer.  As is the case with the Fremont Culture style always covering the Barrier Canyon style.  The Barrier Canyon style (8000 BCE – 500 CE) preceded the Fremont Cultural style (250 – 1,300 CE) in date.

 

By looking at what is left of the rock art.  Pictographs found in exposed positions on cliff faces and shallow caves are subjected to the erosive properties of sand, wind and rain which would be expected to erase their fragile paint quite rapidly. They would weather many times more rapidly than petroglyphs. That these pictographs still appear as distinctly as they do in some unprotected locations suggests that they are of relatively recent origin.

 

By looking at luminescence / Excited Electrons.  Geologist Joel Pederson had the bright idea of dating a large piece of a rock art panel that had cleaved off of the rock wall and fallen face-down on the ground using Optically Stimulated Luminescence (OSL).  It is a fairly new technique being used by geologists to date inorganic material, just like radiocarbon dating is used to date organic material.

As it turns out, the crystalline structure of quartz, commonly found in sandstone, has normal imperfections that allow for something mysterious to happen at the atomic level. In the standard life of a quartz crystal, naturally occurring radiation excites its electrons, which causes them to ‘jump’ from their normal orbits around the atomic nucleus into what is called the conduction band, which is the outermost electron level of an atom – the one that can interact with other atoms. These excited electrons naturally diffuse back to the valence bands from which they came. However, crystalline imperfections in quartz can cause electrons to become trapped between the conduction band and the valence band. What’s more, they get trapped at a characteristic rate depending on how imperfect the crystals are and they accumulate over time. 

When exposed to light or heat, these electrons jump back to the valence band and release a photon of light (luminescence). Scientists can use sensitive equipment to measure the light emitted by quartz sediment to determine the last time it was exposed to light. 

This is precisely what Pederson’s team did with a fallen rock face sample. His students and colleagues not only measured the fallen rock face, but quartz sediment the boulder landed on; they even radiocarbon dated a leaf that was serendipitously trapped between the two when it fell. All three came back with the same date of 900 years ago, or approximately 1100 CE.

What Pederson measured is called ‘bleached’ quartz that had been exposed to sunlight for a while in the canyon, then ‘re-charged’ while it lay face-down on the ground. By analyzing the depth of this bleaching into the rock face compared to what signal should have existed if it had not fallen, they determined that the rock face had been exposed to sunlight for at least 700 years before it fell to the ground. There is some error in this calculation, up to some centuries, so their new time window for the painting (conservatively estimated) is between 0 CE and 1100 CE.

Steven Simms, Anthropology professor, Utah State University sees rock art as ‘a landscape phenomenon reflecting persistence, reformulation, and integration of art, iconography, and ideology among peoples.’ In other words, multiple groups of people likely contributed to the Barrier Canyon and Fremont Culture rock art over multiple generations – encountering the work of earlier artists, adopting and reformulating the iconography, and reflecting the experience of living in that area during their own time. Simms notes that elements of ancient rock art persist in tribes living in the Southwest today, so attributing the rock art to a specific group of people is not only unlikely but misses the point that these important pictographs and petroglyphs represent a thread of cultural sharing over hundreds, if not thousands of years. 

 “These are sinister and supernatural figures, gods from the underworld perhaps who hover in space, or dance, or stand solidly planted on two feet carrying weapons – a club or sword. Most are faceless but some stare back at you with large, hollow disquieting eyes. Demonic shapes, they might have meant protection and benevolence to their creators and a threat to strangers: beware, traveler, you are approaching the land of the horned gods...."

 

Ed Abbey in Desert Solitaire

 Pronghorn Antelopes

Pronghorn antelope are numerous in this area
Their closest relative is the giraffe
Did you know they cannot jump?

This beautiful mammal is truly one of a kind, as the pronghorn’s eleven closest relatives are extinct. It is the last surviving member of the Antilocapridae family. The Pronghorn’s closest living relative is the giraffe!   While the pronghorn is not a true antelope, it displays some of the same traits as the true antelopes of Asia and Africa. This is due to convergent evolution, a process where unrelated species evolve similar traits to thrive in similar environments.

Perhaps the most amazing thing about the Pronghorn is its speed. Due to their long legs, light but muscular bodies, small digestive system, large windpipes, and cushioned hooves, pronghorn can sustain speeds of 55-mph for half a mile, and speeds approaching 45-mph for much longer distances. None of the predators in their range can run anywhere near as quickly, making this exceptional speed somewhat of a mystery. Scientists believe that the pronghorn developed this exceptional speed to escape from the American Cheetah, a blindingly fast ambush predator that lived in North America until roughly 12,000 years ago.

Pronghorns are built for speed but not for jumping. Since their ranges are sometimes affected by ranches' fences, they can be seen going under fences, occasionally at high speed. For this reason, the Arizona Antelope Foundation and others are in the process of removing the bottom barbed wire from the fences, and/or installing a barbless bottom wire to prevent bad injuries.

Pronghorn are one of North America’s most impressive mammals. Perhaps more amazing than their speed is the pronghorn’s migration. Herds of pronghorn migrate 150 miles each way between Wyoming’s Upper Green River Basin and Grand Teton National Park. The only other land animal to travel farther in North America is the caribou.

The San Rafael Swell (locally referred to as The Swell) 

Description from the department of geology in Utah: The Swell is known for its stark and dramatic scenery, which ultimately stems from spectacularly exposed geology.   The Swell has been described as a ‘land of naked rocks’ because the sedimentary strata are so colorfully and well exposed. Travel brochures describe the scenery as ‘great crumbling sandstone palaces and citadels with endless miles of fantastically carved cliffs inciting a drama of upheaval and erosion.’ This is a land of overpowering grandeur. 

And Tom's Canyoneering Guide describes The Swell as: ‘Rugged, desolate, dry, hot, wild. This is the kind of area that has little appeal to those who are not charmed by the desert. Oases of human-friendly environments are few and far between.  One of those corners of the world lost to civilization…’     

Capitol Reef made the vast Swell inaccessible until the uranium boom of the 1950’s and 1960’s.  The Swell, is an 80 by 35-mile geologic upheaval (monocline) that has been cut, shaped, and formed into a crazy assembly of sandstone buttresses, canyons, and plateaus.  Since the early 2000’s, the area has had many special proposals to preserve it, including the making of a national park.  We are still waiting and hoping.  

At the Wedge Overlook of The Little Grand Canyon
Arrived early so I could camp on its very edge
Sun too high for good colors
I had NO idea such a place existed!  Surprise!

The Wedge Overlook is a good place to begin exploring the northern Swell. The view from here offers a bird’s eye perspective of the Little Grand Canyon, a 14-mile path cut from the Earth’s crust by the San Rafael River that’s regarded as one of the best San Rafael hikes. This 1,200-foot deep gorge reveals towering sandstone cliffs that overlook the canyon’s bottom which is lined with cottonwoods, rabbit brush, and greasewood.  It is made primarily of columnar, red-orange Wingate Sandstone which, as is often the case, is capped in whiter Navajo sandstone domes.   At the Wedge Overlook, you find yourself in the midst of a dense ‘pigmy forest’ of piñon pine and Utah juniper.  

Clouds and sunset help dress-up the canyon’s beauty
Looking down 1,200 feet at several million year old rocks

In the stillness of the end of the day, I was surrounded by the type of tranquility I didn’t want interrupted by my next breath, my next step. Quietly waiting for the sun to set.  For the sky to darken.  For a faint echo from deep down the canyon.  For a shooting star.  Expecting the tiniest of sound to stimulate my awareness before the calm of night.

By morning it looked even more different
Would love to have had company to hike down into canyon

Unlike the actual Grand Canyon, almost four hundred miles away, The San Rafael Swell is free, lacks national or state park designation and is somewhat off the beaten path. That means you won’t have to compete with huge crowds for prime campsites and singletrack, or wait forever for strangers to wander out of the panorama you have lined up. That also means you won’t be able to rely on rangers if you get into a pickle, so a little extra planning and caution are wise when you head out for an adventure in The Swell.

Buckhorn Draw Scenic Drive 

The Buckhorn Scenic Route is especially scenic, with high canyon walls, Native American rock art panels, the San Rafael River, wildlife and more.  

Buckhorn Scenic Route – white dot of a van passing by 

The harsh elements beat against this dome and eroded it into a wild, broken array of multi-colored sandstone. Wind and water carved this jumble of rock into incredible formations as buttes, canyons, pinnacles and mesas emerged, making The Swell one of the most ruggedly beautiful pockets of terrain in the world.

Desert Bighorn Sheep – native to this area
Buckhorn Draw Pictograph Panel

Desert bighorn sheep are native to Utah.  Archeological evidence indicates they were well known to the prehistoric inhabitants of Utah, since bighorns are depicted in pictographs and petroglyphs more than any other form of wildlife.  Although native to the area, desert bighorn sheep were extirpated from The San Rafael Swell due to disease, over-hunting, and other causes.  Beginnings in 1979, the Division of Wildlife Resources began a series of transplant projects, returning the bighorn to its ancestral range.  They began with the release of twelve animals captured from areas along the Colorado River. Today, there are more than 900 desert bighorns in The San Rafael Swell. 

Evidence of the Barrier Canyon and Fremont Cultures are on display at the Buckhorn Draw Pictograph Panel, (130-150 feet wide on Navajo sandstone) which can be seen on the drive or ride down to the San Rafael River from the Wedge Overlook. 

No protection, this wall faces east
Colors are fading very rapidly – quite faint already
Hard to imagine it was restored/improved in 1995

The dominant artwork is by the Barrier Canyon People who did not have pottery.  They hunted and gathered, used stone and bone tools, and atlatls.  Distinctive features are of life-sized or larger elongated anthropomorphic figures, without arms or legs, broad shoulders, tapered trunks, vertical body markings, and vacant looking or missing eyes.  Dots, rays, antennae, earrings, or crowns are often seen near their heads.  Figures are frequently accompanied by birds, insects, snakes, and dogs. The ghost-like images are some of the most unusual forms of rock art seen in the area. 

The style features huge panels and virtuoso painting techniques applied with fingers, brushes (hair, yucca, feathers) or spattered by mouth. The ‘anthros’ are typically painted in monochrome reds and browns.  Often looking like aliens, Ancient Aliens and other conspiracy theory shows love to talk about them.  The Barrier Canyon Culture predates the Fremont Culture of 1,000 years ago, by an additional 1,000 years.  

Barrier Canyon style – characterized by large anthropomorphic forms
Some as tall as nine feet.  Somewhat haunting.

Several artists in two cultures separated by thousands of years created this art panel.  People of the Barrier Canyon Culture painted these figures before the birth of Jesus Christ!  It is not clear whether the Barrier Canyon or Fremont Cultures are related to the Ute, Piute, Navajo, or Hopi Native Americans.

Called Alcove figures – artist(s) used natural curve in the rocks
As a ‘stage’ for his/their evocative characters

Black was made from yellow ochre, piñon gum and sumac.  When stirred together, they formed a black powder.  Reds were made from red ochre and the roots of mountain mahogany.  Rabbitbrush was a source of yellow.  Likely binding agents were plant oils and animal fats. 

Greatly improved in 1995 through an intensive six week restoration effort.  Bullet holes and gouges were filled to match the sandstone.  Paint, charcoal, crayon and chalk were removed with special erasers and jeweler’s tools.  Scraped and chiseled areas were disguised with watercolors and pastels.

Very intricate, thought of as Shaman’s Transformation
Or simply Humans, Extra-Terrestrials or Spiritual Visions?

‘I see these pictographs like any great work of art.
Most people wouldn’t consider walking into a museum and writing across a Rembrandt,
or even the wall next to a Rembrandt…’

Constance Silver, Art Conservator, 1995

See holes in their chests?  Meaning?
Someone painted over the red figures with yellow.  Why?
Akin to pictographs I saw in cave in Baja California, MX?

By the late 1800's, Uranium was discovered in The Swell, and mining began. Temple Mountain was one of the first areas mined and a small settlement setup nearby to support the miners. This was on a small scale until the Uranium boom of the 1950's, when miners flocked to The Swell. Between 1950 and 1960, thousands of claims were made and most of the roads that are used today were created in attempts to find Uranium. Most of the claims never struck it rich, except for one which sold for $9 million in 1954. By 1960, most of the mines were abandoned and shut down. Many remnants (old cabins, mine shafts, etc.) from this era are visible throughout The Swell.

Called Red Angels but maybe just fringes? Hair? Feathers?
So open to the elements, rapidly fading

Considered one of the ‘undiscovered’ natural wonders of the American West.  From fossils to rock art, slot canyons to grand canyons, it is a natural playground.  The area is popular with geologists, scientists, and paleontologists because it’s rich in history and unique geology.  Rock formations within range in age from 100 to 230 million years ago!  The Swell is home to Utah’s largest herd of desert bighorn sheep, peregrine falcons, wild horses and burros, mountain lions, mule deer, and pronghorn antelopes.  

The Swell is 130,000 square miles (80 x 35 miles) of public land, known for its scenic sandstone formations, deep canyons, desert streams, and expansive panoramas. The Swell is a massive maze of winding canyons, broken fins and buttes in the heart of Utah.  Outlaws such as Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid used these canyons as hideouts from the law thanks to the many intricate mazes and labyrinths.

Yellow of fall against swinging bridge and red cliffs

Reflecting in San Rafael River

From the mid-eighteenth to mid-nineteenth centuries the Old Spanish Trail Trade Route passed through The Swell on its northern flanks. You can visit the historic San Rafael Swinging Bridge built in the 1930’s by the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) to aid cattle crossing the San Rafael River.  The San Rafael River was treacherous, making it difficult for ranchers to get their livestock across.  This 167-foot-long structure gave local ranchers safe, convenient access to thousands of acres of winter grazing for their sheep and cattle.  Today, grazing permits for sheep have been discontinued in order to maintain a healthier wildlife population.  

The 167-foot suspension bridge constructed by the CCC was dedicated in 1937, restored and re-dedicated in 1994.  It is the only remaining suspension bridge in Utah.  Two thousand people gathered for the first dedication.  The newspaper read, ‘Mystery Lands Now Opened’, indicating that the bridge allowed entrance into more of The San Rafael Swell than had been previously accessible by automobile.  Today the bridge is only used as a foot bridge.  

Bottleneck Peak, 6,401 feet, not far from Swinging Bridge

There are still so many timeline questions to be answered and research to be conducted.  Few archeologists agree and some differ by thousands of years.  Therefore, as I didn’t list the many dinosaurs found in this area, I am not pinpointing too closely any definitive timeline for the people who created the art in so many of the hidden nook and crannies of these wonderful canyons.  Nevertheless some mystery is still good and this is a fascinating area to visit.  Glad you came along.